--- abstract: 'In this paper I discuss connections between self-directedness, integration and higher cognition. I present a model of self-directedness as a basis for approaching higher cognition from a situated cognition perspective. According to this model increases in sensorimotor complexity create pressure for integrative higher order control and learning processes for acquiring information about the context in which action occurs. This generates complex articulated abstractive information processing, which forms the major basis for higher cognition. I present evidence that indicates that the same integrative characteristics found in lower cognitive process such as motor adaptation are present in a range of higher cognitive process, including conceptual learning. This account helps explain situated cognition phenomena in humans because the integrative processes by which the brain adapts to control interaction are relatively agnostic concerning the source of the structure participating in the process. Thus, from the perspective of the motor control system using a tool is not fundamentally different to simply controlling an arm.' altloc: - http://www.kli.ac.at/personal/christensen/WDC_SDcog_mAw03.pdf chapter: ~ commentary: ~ commref: ~ confdates: ~ conference: ~ confloc: ~ contact_email: ~ creators_id: [] creators_name: - family: Christensen given: Wayne D honourific: Dr lineage: '' date: 2004 date_type: published datestamp: 2004-11-29 department: ~ dir: disk0/00/00/39/64 edit_lock_since: ~ edit_lock_until: ~ edit_lock_user: ~ editors_id: [] editors_name: - family: Spurrett given: David honourific: Dr lineage: '' eprint_status: archive eprintid: 3964 fileinfo: /style/images/fileicons/application_pdf.png;/3964/1/Christensen2004_Self%2Ddirectedness.pdf full_text_status: public importid: ~ institution: ~ isbn: ~ ispublished: pub issn: ~ item_issues_comment: [] item_issues_count: 0 item_issues_description: [] item_issues_id: [] item_issues_reported_by: [] item_issues_resolved_by: [] item_issues_status: [] item_issues_timestamp: [] item_issues_type: [] keywords: 'situated cognition, context learning, high order control, executive cognition, evolution of cognition' lastmod: 2011-03-11 08:55:44 latitude: ~ longitude: ~ metadata_visibility: show note: ~ number: 6 pagerange: 661-692 pubdom: FALSE publication: Language Sciences publisher: Elsevier refereed: TRUE referencetext: | Akitsuki, Y., Sugiura, M., Watanabe, J., Yamashita, K., Y., S., Awata, S., Matsuoka, H., Maeda, Y., Matsue, Y., Fukuda, H. & Kawashima, R., 2003. Context-Dependent Cortical Activation in Response to Financial Reward and Penalty: An Event-Related Fmri Study. Neuroimage 19, 1674-85. Allman, J.M., 1999. Evolving Brains. W. H. Freeman/Scientific American. Allman, J.M., Hakeem, A., Erwin, J.M., Nimchinsky, E. & Hof, P., 2001. The Anterior Cingulate Cortex: The Evolution of an Interface between Emotion and Cognition. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 935, 107-117. Arbib, M., Érdi, P. & Szentagothai, J., 1998. Neural Organization: Structure, Function and Dynamics. MIT Press. Bartlett, F.C., 1932. Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology. Cambridge University Press. Bavelier, D. & Neville, H.J., 2002. Cross-Modal Plasticity: Where and How? Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3, 443-452. Bechara, A., Damasio, A.R., Damasio, H. & Anderson, S.W., 1994. Insensitivity to Future Consequences Following Damage to Human Prefrontal Cortex. Cognition 50, 7-15. Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D. & Damasio, A.R., 1997. Deciding Advantageously before Knowing the Advantageous Strategy. Science 275, 1293-1294. Beer, R.D., 1995. Computational and Dynamical Languages for Autonomous Agents. In: Port, R.F. & Van Gelder, T., Mind as Motion: Explorations in the Dynamics of Cognition. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Beer, R.D., 2000. Dynamical Approaches to Cognitive Science. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4, 91-99. Bennett, A.T.D., 1996. Do Animals Have Cognitive Maps? The Journal of Experimental Biology 199, 219-224. Bennett, C.H., 1985. Dissipation, Information, Computational Complexity and the Definition of Organization. In: Pines, D., Emerging Syntheses in Science. Proceedings of the Founding Workshops of the Santa Fe Institute. Addison West Publishing Company, Redwood City, Calif. Berardi, N., Pizzorusso, T., Ratto, G.M. & Maffei, L., 2003. Molecular Basis of Plasticity in the Visual Cortex. Trends in Neurosciences 26, 369-378. Berti, A. & Frassinetti, F., 2000. When Far Becomes Near: Remapping of Space by Tool Use. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12, 415-420. Bickhard, M.H., 1992. Scaffolding and Self Scaffolding: Central Aspects of Development. In: Winegar, L.T. & Valsiner, J., Children’s Development within Social Contexts: Research and Methodology. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, N.J. Bickhard, M.H., 1993. Representational Content in Humans and Machines. Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence 5, 285-333. Bitterman, M.E., 1960. Toward a Comparative Psychology of Learning. American Psychologist 15, 704-712. Blakemore, S.J., Goodbody, S.J. & Wolpert, D.M., 1998. Predicting the Consequences of Our Own Actions: The Role of Sensorimotor Context Estimation. Journal of Neuroscience 18, 7511-7518. Blodgett, H.C., 1929. The Effect of the Introduction of Reward Upon the Maze Performance of Rats. University of California Publications in Psychology 4. Bothvinick, M., Nystrom, L.E., Fissell, K., Carter, C.S. & Cohen, J.D., 1999. Conflict Monitoring Versus Selection-for-Action in Anterior Cingulate Cortex. Nature 402, 179-181. Bouton, M. & King, D., 1983. Contextual Control of the Extinction of Conditioned Fear: Tests for the Associative Value of the Context. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 9, 248-265. Bowers, J.S. & Davis, C.J., 2004. Is Speech Perception Modular or Interactive? Trends in Cognitive Sciences 8, 3-5. Braitenberg, V., 1984. Vehicles: Experiments in Synthetic Psychology. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Brooks, R.A., 1986. A Robust Layered Control System for a Mobile Robot. IEEE Journal of Robotics and Automation 1, 14-23. Brooks, R.A., 1991. Intelligence without Representation. Artificial Intelligence 47, 139-159. Brooks, R.A., 1997. From Earwigs to Humans. Robotics and Autonomous Systems 20, 291-304. Butts, R.E. ed. 1989. William Whewell: Theory of Scientific Method, Hackett Publishing Company, Indianapolis/Cambridge. Carruthers, P., 2002. The Cognitive Functions of Language. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25, 657-726. Chomsky, N., 1959. A Review of Skinner's "Verbal Behavior". Language 35, 26-58. Christensen, W.D. & Hooker, C.A., 2000. An Interactivist-Constructivist Approach to Intelligence: Self-Directed Anticipative Learning. Philosophical Psychology 13, 5-45. Christensen, W.D. & Hooker, C.A., 2002. Self-Directed Agents. In: Mcintosh, J.S., Naturalism, Evolution & Intentionality. University of Calgary Press, Calgary. Clark, A., 1997. Being There: Putting Brain, Body and World Together Again. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Clark, A., 1998. Magic Words: How Language Augments Human Computation. In: Carruthers, P. & Boucher, J., Language and Thought: Interdisciplinary Themes. Cambridge University Press, New York. Cohen, J.D. & Servan-Schreiber, D., 1992. Context, Cortex, and Dopamine: A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia. Psychological Review 99, 45-77. Cohen, Y.E. & Andersen, R.A., 2002. A Common Reference Frame for Movement Plans in the Posterior Parietal Cortex. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3, 553-562. Collett, T.S., Fauria, K., Dale, K. & Baron, J., 1997. Places and Patterns - a Study of Context Learning in Honeybees. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 181, 343-353. Collett, T.S. & Kelber, A., 1988. The Retrieval of Visuo-Spatial Memories by Honeybees. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 163, 145-150. Collier, J.D. & Hooker, C.A., 1999. Complexly Organised Dynamical Systems. Open Systems and Information Dynamics 6, 241-302. Czerwinski, M., Lightfoot, N. & Shiffrin, R.M., 1992. Automatization and Training in Visual Search. American Journal of Psychology 105, 271-315. Damasio, A.R., 1994. Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain. Hayrer Collins, New York. De Gelder, B. & Bertelson, P., 2003. Multisensory Integration, Perception and Ecological Validity. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7, 460-467. Deary, I.J., 2001. Human Intelligence Differences: Towards a Combined Experimental–Differential Approach. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5, 164-170. Dehaene, S., Kerszberg, M. & Changeux, J.-P., 1998. A Neuronal Model of a Global Workspace in Effortful Cognitive Tasks. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 95, 14529–14534. Dietrich, E. & Markman, A.B., 2000. Cognitive Dynamics: Computation and Representation Regained. In: Dietrich, E. & Markman, A.B., Cognitive Dynamics: Conceptual and Representational Change in Humans and Machines. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ. Dietz, V., 2003. Spinal Cord Pattern Generators for Locomotion. Clinical Neurophysiology 114, 1379-1389. Duncan, J., 2001. An Adaptive Coding Model of Neural Function in Prefrontal Cortex. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2, 820-829. Duncan, J., Seitz, R.J., Kolodny, J., Bor, D., Herzog, H., Ahmed, A., Newell, F.N. & Emslie, H., 2000. A Neural Basis for General Intelligence. Science 289, 457-460. Dusek, J.A. & Eichenbaum, H., 1997. The Hippocampus and Memory for Orderly Stimulus Relations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 7109–7114. Eichenbaum, H., 2000. A Cortical–Hippocampal System for Declarative Memory. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 1, 41-50. Eichenbaum, H., 2001. The Hippocampus and Declarative Memory: Cognitive Mechanisms and Neural Codes. Behavioural Brain Research 127, 199-207. Eichenbaum, H., Dudchenko, P., Wood, E., Shapiro, M. & Tanila, H., 1999. The Hippocampus, Memory, and Place Cells: Is It Spatial Memory or a Memory Space? Neuron 23, 209-226. Ewing-Cobbs, L., Barnes, M.A. & Fletcher, J.M., 2003. Early Brain Injury in Children: Development and Reorganization of Cognitive Function. Developmental Neuropsychology 24, 669-704. Gallistel, C.R., 1994. Space and Time. In: Mackintosh, N.J., Animal Learning and Cognition. Academic Press, New York. Gazzaniga, M.S., Ivry, R.B. & Mangun, G.R., 1998. Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of the Mind. W. W. Norton & Company, New York. Gibson, K.R., 2002. Evolution of Human Intelligence: The Roles of Brain Size and Mental Construction. Brain, Behavior, and Evolution 59, 10-20. Gibson, K.R., Rumbaugh, D. & Beran, M., 2001. Bigger Is Better: Primate Brain Size in Relation to Cognition. In: Falk, D. & Gibson, K.R., Evolutionary Anatomy of the Primate Cerebral Cortex. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Giszter, S.F., Moxon, K.A., Rybak, I.A. & Chapin, J.K., 2001. Neurobiological and Neurorobotic Approaches to Control Architectures for a Humanoid Motor System. Robotics and Autonomous Systems 37, 219-235. Gluck, M.A., Meeter, M. & Myers, C.E., 2003. Computational Models of the Hippocampal Region: Linking Incremental Learning and Episodic Memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7, 269-276. Gluck, M.A. & Myers, C.E., 2001. Gateway to Memory: An Introduction to Neural Network Models of the Hippocampus and Learning. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Goldman-Rakic, P.S., 1995. Architecture of the Prefrontal Cortex and the Central Executive. In: Grafman, J., Holyoak, K.J. & Boller, F., Structure and Functions of the Human Prefrontal Cortex. The New York Academy of Sciences, New York. Goldstone, R.L., Steyvers, M., Smith, J.S. & Kersten, A., 2000. Interactions between Perceptual and Conceptual Learning. In: Dietrich, E. & Markman, A.B., Cognitive Dynamics: Conceptual and Representational Change in Humans and Machines. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahweh, NJ. Greene, A.J., Spellman, B.A., Dusek, J.A., Eichenbaum, H.B. & Levy, W.B., 2001. Relational Learning with and without Awareness: Transitive Inference Using Nonverbal Stimuli in Humans. Memory & Cognition 29, 893-902. Grush, R., 1997. The Architecture of Representation. Philosophical Psychology 10, 5-24. Hendriks-Jansen, H., 1996. Catching Ourselves in the Act: Situated Activity, Interactive Emergence, Evolution and Human Thought. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Hoshi, E. & Tanji, J., 2000. Integration of Target and Body-Part Information in the Premotor Cortex When Planning Action. Nature 408, 466-470. Hsieh, L., Gandour, J., Wong, D. & Hutchins, G.D., 2001. Functional Heterogeneity of Inferior Frontal Gyrus Is Shaped by Linguistic Experience. Brain and Language 76, 227-252. Hutchins, E., 1995. How a Cockpit Remembers Its Speeds. Cognitive Science 19, 265-288. Ivanchenko, V. & Jacobs, R.A., 2003. A Developmental Approach Aids Motor Learning. Neural Computation 15, 2051-2065. James, W., 1890. The Principles of Psychology. Holt, New York. James, W., 1997. What Pragmatism Means. In: Menand, L., Pragmatism - a Reader. Random House, New York. Jerison, H.J., 1973. Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence. Academic Press, New York. Johansson, R.S., 1998. Sensory Input and Control of Grip. Novartis Found Symp 218, 45-59; discussion 59-63. Karmiloff-Smith, A., 1992. Beyond Modularity: A Developmental Perspective on Cognitive Science. MIT Press. Karmiloff-Smith, A., 1998. Development Itself Is the Key to Understanding Developmental Disorders. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2, 389-98. Kirsh, D., 1991. Today the Earwig, Tomorrow Man. Artificial Intelligence 47, 161-184. Knudsen, E.I., 2002. Instructed Learning in the Auditory Localization Pathway of the Barn Owl. Nature 417, 322-328. Krubitzer, L. & Kahn, D.M., 2003. Nature Versus Nurture Revisited: An Old Idea with a New Twist. Progress in Neurobiology 70, 33-52. Loeb, E.P., Giszter, S.F., Saltiel, P., Mussa-Ivaldi, F.A. & Bizzi, E., 2000. Output Units of Motor Behavior: An Experimental and Modeling Study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12, 78-97. Markman, A.B. & Dietrich, E., 2000. Extending the Classical View of Representation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4, 470-475. Medin, D.L., Lynch, E.B., Coley, J.D. & Atran, S., 1997. Categorization and Reasoning among Tree Experts: Do All Roads Lead to Rome? Cognitive Psychology 32, 49-96. Menzel, R. & Giurfa, M., 2001. Cognitive Architecture of a Minibrain: The Honeybee. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5, 62-71. Miller, E.K., 2000. The Prefrontal Cortex and Cognitive Control. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 1, 59-65. Montague, P.R. & Sejnowski, T.J., 1994. The Predictive Brain: Temporal Coincidence and Temporal Order in Synaptic Learning Mechanisms. Learning & Memory 1, 1-33. Münte, Thomas F., Altenmüller, E. & Jäncke, L., 2002. The Musician's Brain as a Model of Neuroplasticity. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3, 473-478. Neisser, U., 1997. The Ecological Study of Memory. Philosophical Transactions of the The Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 352, 1697-1701. Newell, A., 1990. Unified Theories of Cognition. Harvard University Press. O’keefe, J. & Nadel, L., 1978. The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Oden, D.L., Thompson, R.K.R. & Premack, D., 1988. Spontaneous Transfer of Matching by Infant Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 14, 140-145. Oden, D.L., Thompson, R.K.R. & Premack, D., 1990. Infant Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes) Spontaneously Perceive Both Concrete and Abstract Same/Different Relations. Child Development 61, 621-631. Pearce, J.M. & Bouton, M.E., 2001. Theories of Associative Learning in Animals. Annual Review of Psychology 52, 111-139. Pfeifer, R. & Scheier, C., 1999. Understanding Intelligence. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Premack, D., 1983. The Codes of Man and Beast. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6, 125-137. Prinz, J. & Barsalou, L.W., 2000. Steering a Course for Embodied Representation. In: Dietrich, E. & Markman, A.B., Cognitive Dynamics: Conceptual and Representational Change in Humans and Machines. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ. Quartz, S.R. & Sejnowski, T.J., 1997. The Neural Basis of Cognitive Development: A Constructivist Manifesto. Behavioural and Brain Sciences 20, 537-596. Regier, T., 2003. Emergent Constraints on Word-Learning: A Computational Perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7, 263-268. Rizzolatti, G. & Arbib, M., 1998. Language within Our Grasp. Trends in Neuroscience 21, 188-94. Rochat, P., Querido, J.G. & Striano, T., 1999. Emerging Sensitivity to the Timing and Structure of Protoconversation in Early Infancy. Developmental Psychology 35, 950-7. Rolls, E.T., 2000. The Orbitofrontal Cortex and Reward. Cerebral Cortex 10, 284-294. Rosenzweig, M.R., 2003. Effects of Differential Experience on the Brain and Behavior. Developmental Neuropsychology 24, 523-40. Rumbaugh, D.M., 1970. Learning Skills of Anthropoids. In: Rosenblum, L., Primate Behavior: Developments in Field and Laboratory Research. Academic Press, New York. Schultz, W., 2000. Multiple Reward Signals in the Brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 1, 199-207. Schultz, W., Dayan, P. & Montague, P.R., 1997. A Neural Substrate of Prediction and Reward. Science 275, 1593-9. Schyns, P.G., Goldstone, R.L. & Thibaut, J.-P., 1998. The Development of Features in Object Concepts. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 21, 1-54. Shafto, P. & Coley, J.D., 2003. Development of Categorization and Reasoning in the Natural World: Novices to Experts, Naive Similarity to Ecological Knowledge. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 29, 641-9. Sieg, W., 1999. Formal Systems, Properties Of. In: Wilson, R.A. & Keil, F., The Mit Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences. Bradford Books. Smith, L.V. & Thelen, E. (eds., 1993. A Dynamics Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action, Bradford Books, Cambridge, MA. Solomon, K.O., Medin, D.L. & Lynch, E., 1999. Concepts Do More Than Categorize. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3, 99-105. Spelke, E., 2003. What Makes Us Smart? Core Knowledge and Natural Language. In: Gentner, D. & Goldin-Meadow, S., Language in Mind: Advances in the Study of Language and Thought. Bradford Books/MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Sterelny, K., 2003. Thought in a Hostile World. Blackwell Publishing. Stiles, J., 2000. Neural Plasticity and Cognitive Development. Developmental Neuropsychology 18, 237-272. Suri, R.E., Bargas, J. & Arbib, M.A., 2001. Modeling Functions of Striatal Dopamine Modulation in Learning and Planning. Neuroscience 103, 65-85. Thompson, R.K.R. & Oden, D.L., 2000. Categorical Perception and Conceptual Judgments by Nonhuman Primates: The Paleological Monkey and the Analogical Ape. Cognitive Science 24, 363-396. Thompson-Schill, S.L., D'esposito, M., Aguirre, G.K. & Farah, M.J., 1997. Role of Left Inferior Prefrontal Cortex in Retrieval of Semantic Knowledge: A Reevaluation. PNAS 94, 14792-14797. Thornton, S., 1999. Creating the Conditions for Cognitive Change: The Interaction between Task Structures and Specific Strategies. Child Development 70, 588-603. Tolman, E.C., 1932/1951. Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Tolman, E.C., 1948. Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men. The Psychological Review 55, 189-208. Tolman, E.C. & Honzik, C., 1930. Introduction and Removal of Reward, and Maze Performance in Rats. University of California Publications in Psychology 4, 257-275. Tononi, G. & Edelman, G.M., 1998. Consciousness and Complexity. Science 282, 1846-1851. Tononi, G., Edelman, G.M. & Sporns, O., 1998. Complexity and Coherency: Integrating Information in the Brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2, 474-484. Turken, A.U. & Swick, D., 1999. Response Selection in the Human Anterior Cingulate Cortex. Nature Neuroscience 2, 920–924. Ungerleider, L.G., Doyon, J. & Karni, A., 2002. Imaging Brain Plasticity During Motor Skill Learning. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 78, 553-564. Van Gelder, T., 1995. What Might Cognition Be, If Not Computation? The Journal of Philosophy 92. Van Gelder, T., 1998. The Dynamical Hypothesis in Cognitive Science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 21, 615-627. Wallenstein, G.V., Hasselmo, M.E. & Eichenbaum, H., 1998. The Hippocampus as an Associator of Discontiguous Events. Trends in Neuroscience 21, 317-323. Wang, R.F. & Spelke, E.S., 2002. Human Spatial Representation: Insights from Animals. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 6, 376-382. Wertheimer, M., 1938. Gestalt Theory. In: Ellis, W.D., Source Book of Gestalt Psychology. Harcourt, Brace and Co, New York. Wolpert, D.M., Ghahramani, Z. & Jordan, M.I., 1995. An Internal Model for Sensorimotor Integration. Science 269, 1880-1882. Xu, F. & Carey, S., 1996. Infant Metaphysics: The Case of Numerical Identity. Cognitive Psychology 30, 111-153. relation_type: [] relation_uri: [] reportno: ~ rev_number: 12 series: ~ source: ~ status_changed: 2007-09-12 16:54:41 subjects: - neuro-psy - bio-ani-cog - cog-psy succeeds: ~ suggestions: ~ sword_depositor: ~ sword_slug: ~ thesistype: ~ title: 'Self-directedness, integration and higher cognition' type: journalp userid: 5266 volume: 26