--- abstract: "Recent empirical and theoretical work suggests that reputation was an important mediator of access to resources in ancestral human environments. Reputations were built and maintained by the collection, analysis, and dissemination of information about the actions and capabilities of group members-that is, by gossiping. Strategic gossiping would have been an excellent strategy for manipulating reputations and thereby competing effectively for resources and for cooperative relationships with group members who could best provide such resources. Coalitions (cliques) may have increased members' abilities to manipulate reputations by gossiping. Because, over evolutionary time, women may have experienced more within-group competition than men, and because female reputations may have been more vulnerable than male reputations to gossip, gossiping may have been a more important strategy for women than men. Consequently, women may have evolved specializations for gossiping alone and in coalitions. We develop and partially test this theory." altloc: - http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~hess/gossip.pdf chapter: ~ commentary: ~ commref: ~ confdates: ~ conference: ~ confloc: ~ contact_email: ~ creators_id: [] creators_name: - family: Hess given: Nicole C. honourific: '' lineage: '' - family: Hagen given: Edward H. honourific: '' lineage: '' date: 2002 date_type: published datestamp: 2002-02-27 department: ~ dir: disk0/00/00/21/12 edit_lock_since: ~ edit_lock_until: ~ edit_lock_user: ~ editors_id: [] editors_name: [] eprint_status: archive eprintid: 2112 fileinfo: /style/images/fileicons/application_pdf.png;/2112/3/gossip.pdf full_text_status: public importid: ~ institution: ~ isbn: ~ ispublished: ~ issn: ~ item_issues_comment: [] item_issues_count: 0 item_issues_description: [] item_issues_id: [] item_issues_reported_by: [] item_issues_resolved_by: [] item_issues_status: [] item_issues_timestamp: [] item_issues_type: [] keywords: 'gossip, female coalitions, friendship, reputation, status' lastmod: 2011-03-11 08:54:54 latitude: ~ longitude: ~ metadata_visibility: show note: ~ number: ~ pagerange: ~ pubdom: FALSE publication: ~ publisher: ~ refereed: FALSE referencetext: |- ABBOTT, D. H. 1993. "Social conflict and reproductive suppression in marmoset and tamarin monkeys," in Primate Social Conflict, pp. 331-372. Edited by W. A. Mason and S. P. Mendoza. Albany: State University of New York Press. ABRAHAMS, R. D. 1970. A performance-centered approach to gossip. Man 5:290-301. ABU-LUGHOD, L. 1986. Veiled sentiments. Berkeley: University of California Press. ALEXANDER, R. D. 1987. The Biology of Moral Systems. New York: de Gruyter. BACON, F. T. 1979. Credibility for repeated statements: Memory for trivia. Journal of Experimental Psychology 5:241-252. BARKOW, J. H. 1992. "Beneath new culture is old psychology: Gossip and social stratification," in The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture. Edited by J. H. Barkow, L. Cosmides, and J. Tooby, pp. 627-637. New York: Oxford University Press. BEISNER, N. 1989. Information withholding as a manipulative and collusive strategy in Nukulaelae gossip. Language in Society 18:315-341. BETZIG, L. 1989. Causes of conjugal dissolution: A cross-cultural study. Current Anthropology 30:654-676. BJORKQVIST, K. AND P. NIEMELA (eds.). 1992. Of Mice and Women: Aspects of Female Aggression. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc. BJORKQVIST, K., K. M. J. LAGERSPETZ, AND A. KAULKANIAN. 1992. Do girls manipulate and boys fight? Aggressive Behavior 18:117-127. BJORKQVIST, K., K. OSTERMAN, AND K. M. J. LAGERSPETZ. 1992. "The development of direct and indirect aggressive strategies in males and females," in Of mice and women: Aspects of female aggression. Edited by K. Bjorkqvist & P. Niemela, pp. 61-54. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. BLEEK, W. 1976. Witchcraft, gossip and death: A social drama. Man 11:526-541. BLOCK, J. H. 1983. Differential premises arising from differential socialization of the sexes: Some conjectures. Child Development 54:1335-1354. BLOCK, R. A., D. P. ARNOTT, B. QUIGLY, W. C. LYNCH. 1989. Unilateral nostril breathing influences lateralized cognitive performance. Brain and Cognition 9:181-190. BRENNEIS, D. 1984. Grog and gossip in Bhatgaon: Style and substance in Fiji Indian conversation. American Ethnologist 11:487-506. BRENNEIS, D. 1987. Talk and Transformation. Man. 22:499-510. BRENNEIS, D. 1988. Language and disputing. Annual Review of Anthropology. 17:221-237. BROWN, E. AND R. GUY. 1983. The effects of sex and Machiavellianism on self-disclosure patterns. Social Behavior and Personality 11:93-96. BULL, J. J. AND W. R. RICE. 1991. Distinguishing mechanisms for the evolution of cooperation. Journal of Theoretical Biology 149:63-74. BURBANK, V. K. 1994. Cross-cultural perspectives on aggression in women and girls: An introduction. Sex Roles 30:169-176. CAMPBELL, A. 1982. "Female aggression," in Aggression and Violence. Edited by P. Marsh and A. Campbell. Oxford: Blackwell. CAMPBELL, A. 1995. A few good men: Evolutionary Psychology and female adolescent aggression. Ethology and Sociobiology 16: 99-123. CAMPBELL, A. 1999. Staying alive: Evolution, culture, and women's intra-sexual aggression. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 22:203-252. CAMPBELL, A., S. MUNCER, AND D. BIBEL. 2001. Women and crime: An evolutionary approach. Aggression and Violent Behavior 6:481-497. CHAGNON, N. A. 1988. Life Histories, Blood Revenge, and Warfare in a Tribal Population. Science 239:985-992. COLSON, E. 1953. The Makah Indians. Manchester: Manchester University Press. COX, B. A. 1970. What is Hopi gossip about? Information management and Hopi factions. Man 5:88-98. COX, S. J., T. J. SLUCKIN, AND J. STEELE. 1999. Group Size, Memory, and Interaction Rate in the Evolution of Cooperation. Current Anthropology 40:369-377. CRICK, N. R. AND J. K. GROTPETER. 1995. Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development 66:710-722. CRICK, N. R., J. F. CASAS, AND H. KU. 1999. Relational and physical forms of peer victimization in preschool. Developmental Psychology 35:376-385. CRICK, N. R., J. F. CASAS, AND M. MOSHER. 1997. Relational and overt aggression in preschool. Developmental Psychology 33:579-588. DALY, M., AND M. WILSON. 1988. Homicide New York: A. de Gruyter. DAWKINS, R. AND J. R. KREBS. 1978. "Animal signals: information or manipulation?" in Behavioral ecology: An Evolutionary Approach. Edited by J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies, pp. 282-309. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. DEAN, B. 1995. Forbidden Fruit: Infidelity, affinity and brideservice among the Urarina of Peruvian Amazonia. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 1: 87-110. DERLEGA, V. J., S. METTS, S. PETRONIO, AND S. T. MARGULIS. 1993. Self-Disclosure. Newbury Park: Sage Publications. DOMELSMITH, D. AND J. DIETCH. 1978. Sex differences in the relationship between Machiavellianism and self-disclosure. Psychological Reports 42:715-721. DUGATKIN, L.A. 1995. Partner choice, game theory and social behavior. Journal of Quantitative Anthropology 5:3-14. DUNBAR, R. 1996. Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language. London: Faber and Faber. EAGLY, A. H. AND V. J. STEFFAN. 1986. Gender and aggressive behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Bulletin 100:309-330. ECKERT, P. 1990. Cooperative competition in adolescent "girl talk". Discourse Processes 13:91-122. EDER, D. AND M. T. HALLIHAN. 1978. Sex differences in children's friendships. American Sociological Review 43:237-250. EDER, D. AND J. L. ENKE. 1991. The structure of gossip: Opportunities and constraints on collective expression among adolescents. American Sociological Review 56:494-508. ENQUIST, M., AND O. LEIMAR. 1993. The evolution of cooperation in mobile organisms. Animal Behaviour 45:747-757. FESHBACH, N. AND G. SONES. 1971. Sex differences in adolescent reactions toward newcomers. Developmental Psychology 4:381-386. FINE, G. A. 1977. Social components of children's gossip. Journal of Communication 27:181-185. FINE, G. A. AND R. L . ROSNOW. 1978. Gossip, gossipers, gossiping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 4:161-168. FRANK, R. H. 1988. Passions within reason: The strategic role of the emotions. New York: Norton. GALEN, B. R., AND M. K. UNDERWOOD. 1997. A developmental investigation of social aggression among children. Developmental Psychology 33:589-600. GEARY, D. C. 1998. Male, Female: The evolution of human sex differences. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. GILBERT, P. 1997. The evolution of social attractiveness and its role in shame, humiliation, guilt and therapy. British Journal of Medical Psychology 70:113-147. GILMORE, D. 1978. Varieties of gossip in a Spanish rural community. Ethnology 17:89-99. GINTIS, H., E. A. SMITH, AND S. BOWLES. 2001. Costly signaling and cooperation. Journal of Theoretical Biology 213:103-119. GLUCKMAN, M. 1963. Gossip and scandal. Current Anthropology 4:307-316. GLUCKMAN, M. 1968. Psychological, sociological, and anthropological explanations of witchcraft and gossip: A clarification. Man 3:20-34. GOODWIN, C. AND J. HERITAGE. 1990. Conversation analysis. Annual Review of Anthropology. 19:283-307. GOODWIN, M. H. 1980. He-said-she-said: Formal cultural procedures for the construction of a gossip dispute activity. American Ethnologist 7:674-695. GOODWIN, M. H. 1982. "Instigating": Storytelling as social process. American Ethnologist 7:799-819. GOODWIN, M. H. 1988. "Cooperation and competition across girls' play activities," in Gender and Discourse: The Power of Talk. Edited by A. D. Todd and S. Fisher, pp. 55-96. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation. GOODWIN, M. H. 1990a. Tactical uses of stories - participation frameworks within the girls and boys disputes. Discourse Processes 13:52-71. GOODWIN, M. H. 1990b. He-said-she-said: Talk as social organization among black children. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. GOTTMAN, J. M. AND G. METTETAL. 1986. "Speculations about social and affective development: Friendship and acquaintance through adolescence," in Conversations of Friends: Speculations on Affective Development. Edited by J. M. Gottman and J. G. Parker, pp. 192-237. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. GROTPETER, J. K. AND N. R. CRICK. 1996. Relational aggression, overt aggression, and friendship. Child Development 67:2328-2338. GURVEN M, W. ALLEN-ARAVE, K. HILL, AND M. HURTADO. 2000. "It's a Wonderful Life": signaling generosity among the Ache of Paraguay. Evolution and Human Behavior 21:263-282. HAGEN, E. H. 1995. Intraspecific Exploitative Mimicry in Humans. Paper presented at the Human Behavior and Evolution Society Annual Meeting. Santa Barbara, CA. HAGEN, E. H., R. B. HAMES, N. M. CRAIG, M. T. LAUER, AND M. E. PRICE. 2001. Parental investment and child health in a Yanomamö village suffering short-term food stress. Journal of Biosocial Science 33:503-528. HALL, J. A. 1984. Nonverbal sex differences: Communication accuracy and expressive style. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. HALPERN, D. F. AND T. M. WRIGHT. 1996. A process-oriented model of cognitive sex differences. Learning and Individual Differences 8:3-24. HANDELMAN, D. 1973. Gossip in encounters: The transmission of information in a bounded social setting. Man 8:210-227. HANNA, C. 1999. Ganging up on girls: Young women and their emerging violence. Arizona Law Review 41:92-141. HARCOURT, A. H. AND K. J. STEWART. 1983. "Interactions, relationships, and social structure: The great apes" in Primate social relationships: An integrated approach. Edited by R. A. Hinde. Oxford: Blackwell. HARNER, M. 1973. The Jivaro: People of the sacred waterfalls. New York: Anchor Books. HASHER, L., D. GOLDSTEIN, AND T. TOPPINO. 1977. Frequency and the conference of referential validity. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 16:107-112. HAVILAND, J. B. 1977. Gossip as competition in Zincantan. Journal of Communication 27:185-191. HAVILAND, J. B. 1988. We want to borrow your mouth: Tzotzil marital squabbles. Anthropological Linguistics 30:395-447. HAWKES, K. 1991. Showing off: tests of an hypothesis about men's foraging goals. Ethology and Sociobiology 12:29-54. HAWKES, K. 1993. Why hunter-gatherers work: An ancient version of the problem of public goods. Current Anthropology 34:341-361. HAWKES, K., J.F. O'CONNELL, AND N.G. BLURTON-JONES. 2001. Hadza meat sharing. Evolution and Human Behavior 22:113-142. HENRICH, J. AND F. J. GIL-WHITE. 2001. The evolution of prestige: Freely conferred deference as a mechanism for enhancing the benefits of cultural transmission. Evolution and Human Behavior 22:165-196. HERTWIG, R., G. GIGERENZER, AND U. HOFFRAGE. 1997. The reiteration effect in hindsight bias. Psychological Review 104:194-202. HINES N. J. AND D. P. FRY. 1994. Indirect modes of aggression among women of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Sex Roles 30:213-236. HOLLAND, D. C. AND M. A. EISENHART. 1990. Educated in Romance: Women, Achievement, and College Culture. University of Chicago Press: Chicago. HYDE J. S., AND M. C. LINN. 1988. Gender differences in verbal ability: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 104:53-69. KANO, T. 1982. The social group of pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) of Wamba. Primates 23:171-88. KANO, T. 1989. "The sexual behavior of pygmy chimpanzees," in Understanding chimpanzees. Edited by P. G. Heltne and L. A. Marquardt. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. KEELEY, L. 1996. War before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage. New York: Oxford University Press. KENYON, S. 1994. "Gender and alliance in central Sudan," in Women among Women: Anthropological Perspectives on Female Age Hierarchies. Edited by J. Dickerson-Putman and J. K. Brown, pp. 15-29. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. KIRALY, Z. 2000. The relationship between emotional self-disclosure of male and female adolescents' friendship. PhD. diss., Fordham University, New York, NY. KNAUFT, B. M. 1991. Violence and sociality in human evolution. Current Anthropology 32:391-428. KUMMER, H. 1968. Social organization of hamadryas baboons. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. KURODA, S. 1979. Social behavior of the pygmy chimpanzees. Primates 21:181-97. LA CERRA, M. M. 1995. Evolved mate preferences in women: Psychological adaptations for assessing a man's willingness to invest in offspring. PhD. diss, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA. LACHMANN, M., S. SZAMADO, AND C. T. BERGSTROM. 2001. Cost and conflict in animal signals and human language. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98:13189-13194. LAIDLER, K. J. AND HUNT, G. 2001. Accomplishing femininity among the girls in the gang. British Journal of Criminology 41:656-678. LAOSA, L. M. AND J. E. BROPHY. 1972. Effects of sex and birth order on sex-role development and intelligence among kindergarten children. Development Psychology 6:409-15. LEAPER, C. AND H. HOLLIDAY. 1995. Gossip in same-gender and cross-gender friends' conversations. Personal Relationships 2:237-246. LEIMAR, O. AND P. HAMMERSTEIN. 2001. Evolution of cooperation through indirect Reciprocity. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 268:745-753. LEVER, J. 1974. Games children play: Sex differences and the development of role skills. PhD. diss., Yale University, New Haven, CT. LEVIN, J. AND A. ARLUKE. 1985. An exploratory analysis of sex differences in gossip. Sex Roles 12:281-286. LEVINE, N. E. 1982. Belief and explanation in Nyinba women's witchcraft. Man 17:259-274. LIANG, M. 1993. Gossip: Does it play a role in the socialization of nurses? IMAGE: Journal of Nursing Scholarship 25:37-43. MARLOWE, F. 1999. Showoffs or Providers: The Parenting Effort of Hadza Men. Evolution and Human Behavior 20:391-404. MARWICK M. G. 1965. Sorcery in it social setting: A study of the Northern Rhodesian Cewa. Manchester: University Press. MCANDREW, F. T. AND M. A. MILENKOVIC. In press. Of tabloids and family secrets: The evolutionary psychology of gossip. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. MILINSKI M., D. SEMMANN, AND H.-J. KRAMBECK. 2002. Reputation helps solve the 'tragedy of the commons'. Nature 415:424-426. MILINSKI, M., D. SEMMANN, T. C. M. BAKKER, AND H.-J. KRAMBECK. 2001. Cooperation through indirect reciprocity: Image scoring or standing strategy? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 268:2495-2501. MITCHELL, C. 1956. The Yao Village. Manchester: Manchester University Press. NASH, D. 1973. A convergence of psychological and sociological explanations of witchcraft. Current Anthropology 14:545-546. NEWMAN, K. 1983. Law and economic organization: A comparative study of preindustrial societies. Cambridge: University Press. NÖE, R. 1992. "Alliance formation among male baboons: Shopping for profitable partners," in: Coalitions and Alliances in Humans and other Animals. Edited by A.H. Harcourt and F.B.M. de Waal. Oxford University Press. NÖE, R., AND P. HAMMERSTEIN. 1994. Biological markets: Supply and demand determine the effect of partner choice in cooperation, mutualism and mating. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 35:1-11. NÖE, R., C. P. VAN SCHAIK, AND J.A.R.A.M.VAN HOOF. 1991. The market effect: An explanation for pay-off asymmetries among collaborating animals. Ethology 87:97-118. NOWAK M. A. AND K. SIGMUND. 1998. Evolution of indirect reciprocity by image scoring. Nature 393:573-577. OMARK, D. R. AND M. EDELMAN. 1973. Peer group social interactions from an evolutionary perspective. Paper presented at the Society for Research in Child Development Conference, Philadelphia. OWENS, L., R. SHUTE, AND P. SLEE. 2000a. "Guess what I just heard!": Indirect aggression among teenage girls in Australia. Aggressive Behavior 26:67-83. OWENS, L., R. SHUTE, AND P. SLEE. 2000b. 'I'm in and you're out...': Explanations for teenage girls' indirect aggression. Psychology, Evolution, and Gender 2:19-46. PAINE, R. 1967. What is gossip about? An alternative hypothesis. Man 2:278-285. PARKE, R. D. AND R. G. SLABY. 1983. "The development of aggression," in Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality, and social development, 4th ed. Edited by E. M. Hetherington, pp. 547-642. New York: Wiley. PATTON, J. Q. 2000. "Reciprocal altruism and warfare: A case from the Ecuadorian Amazon," in Adaptation and human behavior: An anthropological perspective. Edited by L. Cronk, N. A. Chagnon, and W. Irons, pp. 417-436. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. PETERS, J. F. 1998. Life Among the Yanomami. Ontario: Broadview Press. POLLOCK, G, AND L. A. DUGATKIN. 1992. Reciprocity and the Emergence of Reputation. Journal of Theoretical Biology 159:25-37. PROVEDA T. G. 1975. Reputation and the adolescent girl: An analysis. Adolescence 10:127-136. RICHERSON, P. AND R. BOYD. 1998. "The Evolution of Human Ultra-sociality," in Indoctrinability, Ideology and Warfare. Edited by Eibl-Eibesfeldt and F. K. Salter, pp. 71-96, New York: Berghahn Books. RICHERSON, P. AND R. BOYD. 1999. Complex Societies: The Evolutionary Origins of a Crude Superorganism. Human Nature 10:253-289. RODSETH, L., R. W. WRANGHAM, A. M. HARRIGAN, AND B. B. SMUTS. 1991. The human community as a primate society. Current Anthropology 32:221-254. SCHUSTER, I. 1983. Women's aggression: An African case study. Aggressive Behavior 9:319-331. SCHWARTZ, M. 1982. Repetition and rated truth value of statements. American Journal of Psychology 95:393-407. SEIELSTAD M. T., E. MINCH AND L. L. CAVALLI-SFORZA. 1998. Genetic evidence for a higher female migration rate in humans. Nature Genetics 20:278-80. SELLEN, D. W. 1999. Polygyny and child growth in a traditional pastoral society. Human Nature 10:329-371. SHOSTAK, M. 1981. Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman. Vintage Books: New York. SIGG, H. 1980. Differentiation of female positions in hamadryas one-male units. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 53:265-302. SILK, J. B., E. KALDOR, AND R. BOYD. 2000. Cheap talk when interests conflict. Animal Behaviour 59:423-432. SMITH, E. A. AND R. L. BLIEGE BIRD. 2000. Turtle Hunting and Tombstone Opening: Public Generosity as Costly Signaling. Evolution and Human Behavior 21:245-261. SMITH E.A. AND B. WINTERHALDER (Eds.). 1992. Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behavior. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter. SMUTS, B. 1992. Male aggression against women: An evolutionary perspective. Human Nature 3:1-44. SMUTS, B. AND N. NICOLSON. 1989. Reproduction I wild female olive baboons. American Journal of Primatology 19:229-246. SOSIS, R. 2000. Costly signaling and torch fishing on Ifaluk atoll. Evolution and Human Behavior 21:223-244. STEWART, K. J. AND A. H. HARCOURT. 1987. "Gorillas: Variation in female relationships," in Primate societies. Edited by B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. STIRLING, R. B. 1956. Some psychological mechanisms operative in gossip. Social Forces 34:262-267. STOMBLER, M. 1994. "Buddies" or "slutties": The collective sexual reputation of fraternity little sisters. Gender and Society 8:297-323. STRASSMAN, B. I. 1997. Polygyny as a risk factor for child mortality among the Dogon. Current Anthropology 38: 688-695. SUGIYAMA, L. S. AND R. CHACON. 2000. "Effects of illness and injury among the Yora and Shiwiar: pathology risk as adaptive problem," in Human behavior and adaptation: An anthropological perspective. Edited by N. A. Chagnon, L. Cronk, and W. Irons. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. SULS, J. M. 1977. Gossip as social comparison. Journal of Communication 27:164-168. SZWED, J. F. 1966. Gossip, drinking, and social control: Consensus and communication in a Newfoundland parish. Ethnology 5:434-444. THOMPSON-HANDLER, N., R. K. MALENKY, AND N. BADRIAN. 1984. "Sexual behavior of Pan paniscus under natural conditions in the Lomoko Forest, Equateur, Zaire," in TheEevolution of Human Behavior: Primate models. Edited by B. Campbell. Chicago: Aldine. TOOBY, J. AND COSMIDES, L. 1986. Friendship and the banker's paradox: Other pathways to the evolution of adaptations for altruism. Proceedings of the Royal British Academy 88:119-143. TOOBY, J. AND COSMIDES, L. 1988. The evolution of war and its cognitive foundations. Institute for Evolutionary Studies Technical Report 888-1. TURNER, V. W. 1954. Schism and continuity in an African society: A study of Ndembu village life. Manchester: University Press. VALERO, H. 1970. Yanoama. New York: E.P. Dutton and Co., Inc. WALDROP, M. F. AND C. F. HALVERSON Jr. 1975. Intensive and extensive peer behavior: Longitudinal and cross-sectional analyses. Child Development 46:19-26. WALSTON, F., A.S. DAVID, AND B.G. CHARLTON. 1998. Sex differences in the content of persecutory delusions: A reflection of hostile threats in the ancestral environment? Evolution & Human Behavior 19:257-260. WALSTON, F., R.C. BLENNERHASSETT, AND B.G. CHARLTON. 2000. "Theory of mind," persecutory delusions and the somatic marker mechanism. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 5:161-174. WATKINS, S.C. AND A. D. DANZI. 1995. Women's gossip and social change: Childbirth and fertility control among Italian and Jewish women in the United States, 1920-1940. Gender and Society 9:469-490. WATSON-GEGEO, K. A. 1986. The study of language use in Oceania. Annual Review of Anthropology. 15:149-162. WEDEKIND, C. AND M. MILINSKI. 2000. Cooperation through image scoring in humans. Science 288:850-852. WERNER, N. E. AND N. R. CRICK, 1999. Relational aggression and social-psychological adjustment in a college sample. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 108:615-623. WHITE, F. J. 1988. Party composition and dynamics in Pan paniscus. International Journal of Primatology 9:179-93. WHITE, F. J. 1989. "Social organization of pygmy chimpanzees," in Understanding chimpanzees. Edited by P. G. Heltne and L. A. Marquardt. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. WHITE, F. J. AND N. A. BURGMAN. 1990. Social organization of the pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus): Multivariate analysis of intracommunity associations. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 83:193-202. WILSON, D. S., C. WILCZYNSKI, A. WELLS, AND L. WEISER. 2000. Gossip and other aspects of language as group-level adaptations, in The evolution of cognition. Edited by C. Heyes and L. Huber, pp. 347-365. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. WILSON. 1974. Filcher of good names: An inquiry into anthropology and gossip. Man 9:93-102. WRANGHAM, R. W., A. P. CLARK, AND G. I. BASUTA. 1991. "Female relationships and social organization of Kibale Forest chimpanzees," in Human origins. Edited by T. Nishida. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. WRANGHAM, R. W., AND B. B. SMUTS. 1980. Sex differences in the behavioural ecology of chimpanzees in the Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility supp. 28:13-31. relation_type: [] relation_uri: [] reportno: ~ rev_number: 12 series: ~ source: ~ status_changed: 2007-09-12 16:42:52 subjects: - bio-socio - evol-psy - soc-psy succeeds: ~ suggestions: ~ sword_depositor: ~ sword_slug: ~ thesistype: ~ title: Informational Warfare type: preprint userid: 289 volume: ~